Overturning the Bowls (Burma)

On August 8, 1990, in commemoration of the second anniversary of the democracy uprising, more than 7,000 monks and novices walked through the streets of Mandalay, solemnly and peacefully accepting alms from the people. Soldiers confronted the monks and opened fire, killing two monks and two students and wounding seventeen others. One novice disappeared.

Following this massacre, the Monks’ Union (Sangha Samaggi) of Mandalay, led by Ven. Yewata, declared pattam nikkujjana kamma, “overturning the bowl,” against the military. A monk who was involved in the boycott and evaded arrest recalled the following:

“In Mandalay, the boycott was started in the compound of Phayargyi. My close friends, who lived in the Old Masoeyein Monastery, participated in this very early boycott ceremony. Around Phayargyi, there were many monasteries and nearly 5000 monks lived there. These monks unanimously mandated the boycott. Ten highly respected Ven. Monks recited selections from sacred Pali texts according to the ritual performed surrounded by 5000 monks. Then, they declared the boycott, pattam nikkujjana kamma.





“A boycott like this might not even occur once in a hundred years. After the declaration of the boycott, no monks accepted alms from the regime. The regime tested if the boycott was a real one or not. The army units cooked and placed meals at all junctions in Mandalay for monks. In Mandalay, there were about 40,000 monks then. Traditionally, there was a common donation for monks in Mandalay. Nevertheless, when the time passed, the offerings of the army units were left untouched. No monks accepted their alms, not even young novices. This showed the unity of monks. Some policemen pretended to be civil servants and tried to donate alms to monks; but when the monks found them out and returned their alms to them. 

 According to the rules of conduct for Theravada Buddhist monks as it is stated in the Commentary 5 of the Thilawa Pali and that in page 262 of the Vinaya Pali, a layperson who has committed any of eight offenses should be ostracized. These eight offenses are: striving for that which is not gain, striving for that which is not benefit, acting against a monastery, vilifying and making insidious comparisons about monks, inciting dissension among monks, defaming the Buddha, defaming the Dharma, and defaming the Sangha, the order of monks. If a layman acts in any of these ways, the Sangha should shun these persons through methods such as not accepting religious offerings from them, not helping them to perform any religious ceremonies, not going to them and relating to them in religious ways. The offenders can be boycotted until they make an apology.

This powerful religious boycott began in Mandalay and spread like wildfire across Burma, causing alarm and trauma to the ruling State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC). By October, the religious sanctions against the military families had reached Rangoon.

“The action of the venerable monks from Rangoon hit the bull’s eye. Ven. Insein Ywama U Tilawkarbiwuntha and Ven. Tipitaka U Thumingalar Linkara of Mahar Ghandaryone led the movement. Later, many venerable monks like Ven. Maydini, Ven. Tharkayta, Ven. Shwephonepwint and Ven. Meggin signed agreements for the boycott. Young monks could participate with confidence, saying, “Even highly respected venerable monks are participating in the boycott, so we should do more than them.”

Throughout the country, monks were refusing alms from military personnel and their families and refusing to attend religious services organized by the SLORC. Although the purpose of the boycott was a compassionate attempt to help the evildoers repent their deeds, to forsake their wrong ways, and to return to the true path, the military leaders did not accept the reproach. Saw Maung, the then Chairman of SLORC, and Tun Kyi, the then Commander of Mandalay Division Command, declared that their actions were completely justified and that they were not afraid of going to hell.


Recent Arrests of Monks in 2003 for “Overturning the Bowl”

In October 2003, a small religious riot occurred in Kyaukse, a small township in upper Burma, that transformed into a public protest due to dissatisfaction with the authorities’ handling of the riot. The local authorities invited five monks from Mandalay to discuss the situation and were told to put an end to the riot. Later, however, these five monks were also arrested, accused of not stopping the Kyaukse riot as they were instructed by the authorities. All the five monks were sentenced to 25 years imprisonment: 7 years under Section 5(J) of the Emergency Provisions Act, 2 years under Article 295 of the Penal Code, and 14 years under Article 17 (20) of the Printers and Publishers’ Registration Law.

Days after the incident, a religious discourse by Ven. Wiseitta Biwuntha, alias Wirathu, in Mandalay was banned by the authorities. Later the monk was invited to a meal in the old palace compound of the Mandalay Division Command where he was arrested upon his arrival. Hearing the news about the arrest of Ven. Wirathu, about 600 monks followed him and inquired about the incident. The military troops blocked the monks and suppressed them by using tear gas and firing guns. Three monks died on the spot, many were wounded and about 20 monks were arrested and imprisoned. When some monks tried to visit the imprisoned monks, they were also arrested by the authorities, without evidence of any offense. In addition, about 2000 monks from Mandalay Monasteries were sent back to their respective hometowns.

The next day, the regime held an alms-giving ceremony at Masoeyein Monastery which all the military authorities attended. The military authorities then published news and photos of the ceremony in the state-run newspaper, attempting to hide the incident that had transpired in Kyaukse. The regime’s lack of response provoked small-scale riots in Myingyan, Meiktilar, Taungdwingyi and Pakokku townships.

The regime has often accused the NLD for recent religious riots but NLD party leaders deny that its members have had any involvement. According to some eyewitnesses, some of the monks who took part in the riots at Meikhtila in November wore trousers beneath their robes, implying that they were fake monks. Most of the people believe that the military authorities deliberately created the religious riots to divert people’s attention from the dire political and economic situation of the country.

As news of the cruel actions of the authorities spread throughout the country, the sentiment of dissatisfaction with the regime grew among both the monks and the people. The regime did not make an official announcement about the incident nor did they make any legal examination into the incident. Instead, the military authorities continued visiting famous monasteries, where they made donations to the venerable monks, taking photographs and video footage that was published in newspapers and broadcasted on television as daily headline news.

On November 2, 2003, at Insein Ywarma Monastery, the MI forced the monastery gates to be kept closed. The MI claimed that monks from Mandalay and Kyaukse monasteries were being moved to Insein Ywarma Monastery and thus this measure was to prevent unnecessary affairs such as demonstrations or rallies. Some monks who were dissatisfied with the order complained to their teachers and the situation grew close to riot conditions. The monastery was immediately closed down and monks were sent back to their hometowns.

On November 4, 2003, the military intelligence service led offerings of robes and food for monks of Kabaraye Tipitaka Mahar Ghandaryone Teaching Monastery, in Rangoon. They invited 10 senior monks to the Armed Forces Dharma Hall for offerings. The other monks were to receive offerings at the monastery itself. However, the entire group of samanera, the third-level student monks, refused to accept the alms.

At the time of the young monks’ protest, the abbot of the monastery, Ven. Thumingala, was at the Armed Forces Dharma Hall. When informed about the situation by phone, he left, but did not come directly back to his own monastery. He went to a nearby monastery to obtain details of what had taken place. It was reported that he ordered a list of the offending samanera to be drawn up and gave instructions to the authorities to arrest the samanera on the list.

When the authorities entered the monastery, they ordered the closure of studies, and for all attending student monks to return to their original monasteries in different parts of the country. As soon as the concerned families of the monks heard the news, they went to the monastery to fetch their related monks and novices, but the MI prohibited the monks from leaving. Instead, the MI brought vehicles to take the monks away without delay. They then separated out the samanera who had conducted the protest, put them in separate vehicles and took them directly to Insein Prison. Some lucky novices managed to evade arrest. Those who were to be sent to prisons were disrobed and given the choice to join the army or be imprisoned. Most of the samanera were around 18 and 19 years old. Among the group was just one old monk; the rest were samanera. A tribunal in Insein Prison sentenced the monks to 18 years each on 19 January 2004, under article 295(A) of the Panel Code and Article 5 (D & J) of the Emergency Provisions Act.

After the young novices engage in “overturning the bowl”, the military regime issued a curfew order via the state-founded Sangha Coordination Committees. The order, which remains in effect today, indicates that monks are not allowed to go outside their respective monasteries starting from 7 pm until 4 am the next morning. At the same time, the regime gave instructions to all Division, District, and Township Peace and Development Councils in phases, to inspect for strangers residing in monasteries. The instructions include prohibiting relatives of the monks to stay at the monastery compounds as visitors; allowing only parents of monks to stay who come for medical treatment and have no companion to look after them; and prohibiting any lay attendants to stay overnight at the monastery. At the same time, military troops, police forces, MI personnel and local Peace and Development Council members were placed near various monasteries.

Monks who were found outside the monasteries after 7 pm were immediately arrested by military personnel without any examination. It was reported that over 100 monks were arrested in Rangoon alone for ‘violating the curfew’. Most monks were sojourners and students from far away areas and were temporarily staying at the monasteries. Yet, the authorities considered all monks they found after 7 pm to be ‘fake monks’. Most of the monks were arrested while they were coming back to their monasteries by foot as there was no special transportation for them. Some were arrested while they were outside to procure items such as medicine, stationery etc. Some monks were even beaten when they were arrested.

Those who were arrested were brought to the military headquarters for initial questioning and then transferred to an interrogation center where they were disrobed and sent to Insein Prison. It has been reported that only those who could obtain a recommendation letter form the Division Sangha Coordination Committee were released on bail.

At the moment, it is difficult to confirm the exact number of monks who have been disrobed and who remain in prison today. Some human rights organizations estimate that approximately 300 monks remained in prison at the beginning of 2004. One reason for the difficulty in verifying this figure is that disrobed monks are often kept together with convicts. In addition, they are often transferred to remote prisons and prison labor camps. The fate of disrobed and imprisoned monks still remains critical. Moreover, as longs as Burma remains under a military dictatorship and without democracy, Buddhist monks in Burma also remain facing a dilemma of whether to live abiding by the rules, regulations, orders and decrees of the military government or to live according to the Vinaya, Buddhist’s rule.

Pariyatti Dhamma & Patipatti Dhamma in Thailand

Introduction
Buddhism was introduced to Thailand in 4 different periods. In the third century of the Buddha era, Venerable Sona and Venerable Uttara from India brought Theravada Buddhism to the area called Suvarnbhumi. In the fourteenth Buddhist century, Mahayana Buddhism from the Sumatra Islands and Cambodia was expanded to the southern area of the kingdom known as Suratthani Province today. In the seventeenth Buddhist century, Pagan Buddhism spread from Burma to the northern area named “Lanna”, and in the nineteenth Buddhist century, Theravada Buddhism from Sri Lanka was introduced to Nakhon Si Thammarat Province. It was accepted and then expanded to the northern part of the country, to the Sukhothai kingdom, and then transferred to Ayutthaya and what is now Rattanakosin.

Buddhism has had a long and continuous history with Thai society. It can be said that Buddhism directly influenced many Thai customs, such as ordination, listening to a sermon, giving alms and indirectly gave support to events, such as the Songkran Festival, New Year’s celebrations, and ceremonies concerning birth, death and marriage. Buddhism is related to Thai society at all levels, both as individuals and social groups.

Buddhism has been a significant foundation of customs, culture, beliefs, values and the way of life of Thai people for a long time. The role of Buddhism in Thailand also supports education and develops the people’s thinking. In the field of education, it is known as Pariyatti Dhamma, and in the area of mental training, it is called Patipatti Dhamma. So, Pariyatti Dhamma and Patipatti Dhamma in Thailand will be presented as follows:

Educational Systems in Buddhism

The Buddhist system of education or ‘Phra Saddhama’, is divided into 3 sections; Pariyatti Saddhamma, Patipatti Saddhamma, and Pativeda Saddhamma.

Pariyatti Saddhamma is the study of the Dhamma (teachings) and Vinaya (Discipline) in order to gain accurate understanding in the principles so that one can teach the others accurately. That will lead to an accurate practice according to the aim of Buddhism.

Patipatti Saddhamma is bringing Dhamma and Vinaya that one has learned into practice to train and cultivate one’s behaviour and mind to be perfect. The practice starts from observing Silas (Precepts), and then is followed by the practice of meditation. The fundamental purpose of Dhamma practice is to control one’s physical and verbal actions to be a good member of society. In the higher levels, Dhamma practice is to attain one-pointedness of mind as the base to gain wisdom or enlightenment. At this level, one can realize things as they really are.

Pativeda Saddhamma is the result of the practice following the principles of Dhamma and Vinaya in various levels starting from avoiding evils, and doing good up to attaining salvation.

Pariyatti and Patipatti Saddhamma can be observed physically, but Pativeda Saddhamma can be achieved or experienced by oneself, i.e. only the one who practices it.

Pariyatti Dhamma and Patipatti Dhamma in Thailand

Pariyatti Dhamma and Patipatti Dhamma in Thailand can be traced to the Sukhothai period, Ayutthaya and Rattanakosin respectively. The monks were classified into two groups; Gamavasi (Town-monks) and Aranyavasi (Forest-monks).

Gamavasi means city or town monks or monks dwelling in temples close to or in communities. They have a close relation with communities because almost all of them are the offsprings of communities. They have a clear objective in carrying on Buddhist burden of education. They study Buddhist teachings and help manage the education system of temples and Sangha Orders.

Aranyavasi refers to forest monks or monks residing in temples far away from communities or sometimes in the forest or jungle. They intend and devote themselves to meditation practice or as it is called Vipassana Dhura. Most of meditation centres are the outcome of the forest monks.

Pariyatti Dhamma

Pariyatti Dhamma in Thailand is traditionally divided into 2 sections; Dhamma Studies and Pali Studies. According to the education management in actual situations, it can be classified into 5 sections; Dhamma Studies, Pali Studies, General Education, Buddhist Sunday Schools, and Buddhist Universities. The details of each branch of study are as follows:

   1. Dhamma Studies: This course consists of 4 main subjects. They are an Essay in Dhamma, Buddhist teachings and interpretation, the Life of the Buddha, and Discipline. The courses have 3 grades: Fundamental, Intermediate, and Advanced. The period of study in each grade covers 6 months before an examination. The study program is under the control of the Head of the Dhamma Study Division.

   2. Pali Studies: The Pali studies have 9 grades. Since the first and the second grades are mixed up together, the examination starts from grade 2 to grade 9. The duration of time used for each grade of study is about 6 months and is followed by an examination. The method in teaching and learning are mainly based on translations, i.e. translation the Pali language into Thai and from Thai into the Pali language. The texts used in the study are scriptures from the Commentaries and Sub-commentaries. They are Dhammapada Commentaries, Discipline and Abhidhamma Sub-commentaries. The Pali studies are controlled by the Head of Pali Studies Division.

   3. General Education School: This kind of school is to provide a general education for monks and novices. It was firstly founded in 2514. Subjects on Dhamma and Pali language are put in the study program for additional learning. At first, the school provided the higher primary education and secondary education for students, but at present, only secondary education is provided because the primary education is a compulsory course and is offered by the state nationwide. There are general education schools run by temples throughout the country.

   4. Buddhist Sunday School: It can be said that Buddhist Sunday School is another option in providing Buddhist teachings to the younger generation. His Holiness Somdej Phraphutthajara (Asabho) founded the first Buddhist Sunday School at Wat Mahathat in Bangkok in 2501. The activities of the school has been accepted and improved accordingly. At present, more than one hundred Buddhist Sunday schools are scattered throughout Thailand. The schools provide courses in Buddhism to people with different education backgrounds, from primary school to university level. The main subjects offered to people are the Life of the Buddha, Buddhist teachings and English in Buddhism. The schools also provide optional subjects for their students, such as Thai arts and Thai culture.

   5. Buddhist University: There are two Buddhist universities in Thailand; Mahamakut Buddhist University and Mahachula Buddhist University founded a hundred years ago. Both universities have headquarters in Bangkok, but their learning centres and campuses are located in big cities around Thailand. The courses offered by the universities are Buddhism, Philosophy, Languages, Education, and Social Sciences. Undergraduate and graduate studies are available at the universities. Students may choose to enroll in either a general program or an international program.

Patipatti Dhamma

Forest temples are believed to be the meditation practice centres. The purpose of the practice is to attain the salvation or to eradicate all suffering. Forest monks and forest temples have existed and continued from the Sukhothai period. In Ayutthaya kingdom the group of forest monks was called ‘Wat Pa Kaew Group’. It has been well-known among Thai people because its role was brought to relate to some parts of the life of King Naresuan the great. In the reign of King Rama III of the Rattanakosin period, Veneralble Vajirayana founded a new Sangha Sect called “Dhammayuttika Nikaya” in 2372. The result of the new Sangha Sect was to make the forest temples and meditation centres clearer and more significant. It could be said that there were forest temples founded in the kingdom, especially in the northeast area of the country.

The teaching, learning and practicing of meditation in Thailand originated from a faith in a particular monk as the main factor. The monk was usually well-known in meditation practice and his way of life, but his followers gained the fruit of their practice according to their practice levels or their spiritual perfections. For example, Somdej Phraphutthajara (Brahmarangsi) of Wat Rakhang was well-known for his knowledge of Buddhist scriptures and meditation in the reign of King Rama I to King Rama III. When he passed away, his way of practice in meditation also disappeared. What has remained until now is the rituals and supernatural belief of him.

After the founding of Dhammayuttika Nikaya, the forms of meditation practices and the meditation centers became formative. It started from the period of Phra Upalikhunupamajara (Siricando, 2399-2475) who was an administrative monk from Ubolratchathani Province in the northeast of Thailand and was interested in meditation himself. He also encouraged monks under his administration to pay more attention to meditation. The results of his encouragement are to have several famous meditation trainers in the past until now, such as Venerable Sao (2403-2484), Venerable Man (2413-2492), Venerable Fan (2442-2520), Venerable Thes (2445-2537), Venerable Bua (2456-Present), and Venerable Viriyang (2463-Present). These meditation trainers and their meditation centers are located in the northeast area of Thailand.

After the death of Venerable Man in 2492, in the central plain area of the kingdom, Somdej Phraphutthajara (Asabho, 2446-2532) from Khon Kaen Province in the northeast founded a meditation center at Wat Mahathat in Bangkok in 2495. The teaching and learning of meditation in this center is based on the principles of “Mahasatipatthana”, which is parallel to Sasayissa Meditation Center in Rangoon of Myanmar. Not long before that, Phra Mongkholthepmuni (Candasaro, 2427-2502) opened a meditation center at Wat Pak Nam in Phasi Charoen of Bangkok. The method of meditation practice is called “Vijja Dhammakaya”. The teaching and learning activities of these two meditation centers are prosperous and popular among local and international people.

Nowadays, Thai people of different ages and all walks of life pay attention to the practice of meditation. It may be said that that is a new trend in Dhamma practice in modern Thai society. At the same time, there are increasing numbers of meditation centers nationwide run by temples, monks, non-profit organizations, profit-organizations, and lay-people. The meditation centers recognized by the Office of National Buddhist are 898 in number. Those meditation centers can produce certificates to the meditation participants and trainees.



Conclusion


According to its principles, Buddhism aims to have its disciples follow 3 essential doctrines, i.e. starting from Pariyatti Saddhamma or to study Dhamma and Vinaya and bring them into practice called Patipatti Saddhamma. It seeks the preservation of Sila, a meditation practice, and cultivation in wisdom in order to realize things as they really are, not as they appear. When the mind is free from defilements and sufferings, it will enter into Pativeda Saddhamma, that is to say, to achieve the outcomes of practice in different levels starting from Magga, and Nibbana at the end.

Pariyatti Sikkha in Thailand is the outcome of dividing monks into Gamavasi or monks who come from communities, stay in the communities, and study Buddhist teachings and discipline in order to teach people in the communities. So Pariyatti Sikkha has a clear structure and management. It is also supported by the Royal Bureau, government and organizations in the form of budget, scholarships and personnel. And again, Pariyatti Sikkha can go together with the requirement of the present society, i.e. the graduates can earn their living from the knowledge they obtained from the temples.

Patipatti Sikkha has resulted from dividing monks into Aranyavasi or forest-monks and forest-temples. The purpose of becoming a forest-monk is to practice or train oneself for salvation. There have been several well-known meditation centers and monks in Thailand. But some factors could deter the progress and expansion of meditation practice. The first is that the conditions and procedures for monks to enter to the forest-monk communities take time. Then monks who wish to become forest-monks or wish to stay in forest temples have to make a clear decision for peace of mind and salvation. So they have to reduce and avoid their relations with others and outside society. All that may be against the will of an ordinary man. Finally, it is a factor of society that evaluates and proves things from documents and certificates. Those who are interested in meditation have to turn their ways to the meditation centers recognized by the Office of National Buddhism.

Both Pariyatti Saddhamma and Patipatti Saddhamma, however, must go along together. Those who have studied Buddhist teachings and discipline have to bring them into practice. Those who are interested in meditation have to study it clearly and correctly so that their practice can give a suitable advantage as their wish, i.e. to attain different levels in Pativada Saddhamma.

Mutual contribution of Pariyatti and Patipatti-dhamma of Sangha in Thailand.

Historical background

From the time the Thai people established the kingdom of Sukhothai, the first Thai kingdom, around BE 1800(CE1250) most of the Thai people have upheld Buddhism as their state religion down to the present day. In term of administration, Thai Sangha in the time of Sukhothai was divided into two groups, the gamavasi and arannavasi were monks who lived in monasteries within the cities or in rural villages. The duties of these monks emphasized ganthadhura-the study of the Buddha’s teachings and teaching the Dhamma to the people. Arannavasi monks live in forest monasteries. Their duties emphasized Vipaasandhura-the practice of tranquility and insight meditation for training the transcendence of suffering. Two groups of monks handed down from the Sukhothai period up to present.

Pariyatti mentions to the studying and understanding of the Buddha’s teachings which come from his own experiences. Patipatti refers to the practicing of doctrine and Pativedha refers to the attainment of the true doctrine. Then we can simply say that Pariyatti is the result of Buddha’s Patipatti.

There are many arguments between the Pariyatti and the Patipatti happening nowadays, for example, the Pariyatti sometime refer that the Patipatti usually create and deliver their own doctrine which are not the Buddha’s teachings while the Patipatti sometime say that the Pariyatti are only the bookworm who only understand the Dharma but never taste it themselves.

Thereby, some of the Patipatti are usually afraid of the Pariyatti’s arguments and do not feel like wanting to make the controversy happens because the Patipatti sometime do not know how to express the natural phenomenon from their practice into written language.


The development of Buddhist Pariyatti and Patipatti
Generally speaking, Buddhist Pariyatti aims at training humans to liberate themselves away from suffering. This aim is formulated by the Buddha in the Four Noble Truths, suffering, cause of suffering, cessation of suffering and path to end of suffering. After expounding these to his earliest disciples – proceeding from the First and Second Truths, he affirmed that there was a path overcoming the gloomy side towards the attainment of ultimate bliss. In order to achieve this aim, Buddhist followers are advised to strictly follow only this path. The ultimate goal of Buddhist pariyatti is to destroy ignorance, the root cause of suffering. Specifically, learning and practicing in a Buddhist sense should seek to eliminate from the students’ mind a variety of wrong views, which form the theoretical basis of ignorance. These purely conceptual contents of the mind comprise the so-called "imputed ignorance", as opposed to the "innate ignorance". It is "conceptual" or "acquired" ignorance. Innate ignorance cannot be accessed until there is conceptual ignorance (or misconceptions), so first one has to eliminate the "imputed" ignorance, i.e. wrong views.

The most education processes imply that there is some kind of result to be gained from the process of learning. A student, for instance, studies a certain subject in order to master it and put it to use in his/her life, thus becoming more knowledgeable, wealthier, gaining higher status in society etc. This is what we may call the social value of education. Similarly, Buddhist followers have to learn and gain certificate issued on completion of one’s studies. It is usually assumed that by getting a diploma, one somehow becomes a more valuable person and he/she can turn this extra value to his/her advantage. Many young monks entering higher education today are conditioned by such expectations. The value system of modern education obviously implies belief in a concrete and permanent self, which can become “better" (more knowledgeable, educated etc.) and happier through education. It seem to be missed the point, but actually not.

Pariyatti and Patipatti cover three major fields of Buddhist learning: (1) individually, they aim at helping monks with the process of purifying body and mind, serving as a means of developing his wholesome faculties into favorable conditions of achieving the ultimate liberation; (2) monastically, they serve as the pivotal foundation for all sorts of monks’ activities, and as unique support for any possible preservation and development of Buddhist Teachings in the world; (3) socially, in lay people’s living they serve as basic conditions of making a morally perfect personality; hence, a happy family life and a peacefully developing country.

The importance of Pariyatti and Patipatti
Buddhism does propagation of the principles of education as pariyatti, patipatti and pativetha that form basis of the various schools of Buddhist education. Pariyatti and Patipatti are considered as the foundations of education because they are steps leading to deliverance. The importance of Pariyatti and Patipatti may be explained as :

1. Pariyatti means study of the true doctrine. In the Buddhism, education begins with the study of Discipline (vinaya) and Doctrine (Dhamma) for the destruction of sufferings. Buddha ordained Annakondanna at Isipatana and said:

‘Come then, Brother, well taught is the Dhamma. Live the holy life for the utter destruction of woe’.

Destruction, discarding and eradication of woe are the goal of Pariyatti and Patipatti in Buddhism. Every disciple who wants to overcome all defilements or to get deliverance has to study the discipline and doctrine that is, a man can follow the path only if he knows the path clearly and he can know the path by study only. With this the formation of Sangha and system of monastic order started. The relationship between the teacher and his pupils within the monastery becomes the educational system because all new comers have to pass first five years under the spiritual preceptor or teacher’s care until they are properly trained in the Discipline and the Doctrine. This system is called Nissaya. In this way, the relations between preceptor and pupil are like that of a father and a son, based on confidence and love. The subject matters of study were the Buddhist legends and moral fables. The curriculum of the monks included what were termed as Suttanta, Dhamma and Vinaya, together with Suttas and Sutta-vibhanga. This system of education was established in the monasteries automatically because of relation between preceptor and pupils. The teacher means spiritual preceptor took sometime his class in the open air informally or he, sometime, stood under the tree and taught his pupils. The relations between teacher and pupil are also governed by the Vinaya. The newly ordained monks have to undergo an arduous ethical training under the supervision of some elder and able monk. Therefore, Vinaya or disciplines are the orders of Sangha that have to be preached by all.

In this way, Buddhist Pariyatti is appreciated because it leads to Nibbāna. Thus, the three-fold path: morality, meditation and wisdom form the basis of pariyatti system of Buddhism. Nibbāna can be attained by practice in accordance with the three-fold path only.

2. Patipatti means practice, training, cultivating oneself in the path that purifies himself. The Buddha explains the function and the purpose of cultivating virtue, meditation and wisdom for the cessation of the three root causes of evil: lust, hatred and delusion. These root causes are eliminated through following, practicing or training in virtue, meditation and wisdom that are called the path. Without the path, one can not purify himself. The Buddhist monk giving up worldly pleasures endeavors to lead a life of voluntary poverty and completes celibacy to attain the higher aim. He has to practice his function within the bounds of a monk’s life to attain deliverance of mind.

In Buddhism, there are two ways to leading to life of a monk: one entails continuous meditation, this is called ‘Vipassana Dhura’ and the other is studying and teaching the Dhamma that is called ‘Gantha Dhura’. Between these two, it is obligatory on every monk to take up one of these ways in accordance with his temperament, environment and intention. Vipassana Dhura is regarded as the intense process of cleansing one’s speech, action and thought. Buddha warns against bookish learning of a monk as:

‘Though he recites the sacred texts a lot, but acts not accordingly that heedless man is like a cowherd counting other’s cattle and not obtaining the products of the cow. He shares not the fruits of the tranquil man’.

This clearly indicates that even if a person becomes expert academically after learning by heart much from the texts, but he has yet to practice of what has been heart and learnt by him by means of following the right path. He remains only a learner until he completes the whole process. The Buddha does not praise an academic intellectual development as important because it cannot rid a man from the cycle of birth-and death. Buddha has always put emphasis on the practice of eight-fold path and living up to the high ideals. As he says:

‘Though he recites only a little of the sacred texts, but acts in accordance with the teaching, abandoning lust, hate and delusion, possessed of right understanding, his mind entirely released and clinging to nothing here or hereafter, he shares the fruits of the tranquil man’.

These sayings indicate that the Buddhist way of life does not depend on mere academic and intellectual development but on practical teaching because later can lead to enlightenment. Method of grasping the highest truth is the awakening from ignorance with full knowledge and practice of virtue, concentration and wisdom. Each is a way to an end and none of them is an end in itself. These three go together supporting each other. Virtue or regulated behavior strengthens meditation and meditation in turn promotes wisdom. Wisdom helps one to get rid of the clouded view of things to see life as it really is that is to see life and all things pertaining to life as arising and passing away. Virtue, concentration and wisdom are related to each other and they can not be separated.

3. Pativedha means the true doctrine of penetration or realizable aspect of the true doctrine. It is the practical result for mental development until one purifies his mind, gets right understanding with clinging to nothing and sees all things as they really are, mpermanent, unsatisfactory and without self. As the Buddha says:

‘All conditioned things are impermanent; All conditioned things are dukkha, unsatisfactory; All dhamma are without a self, a soul’.

With the consideration of the five aggregates -one sees them clearly as they really are, one’s mind is uplifted at the stage of right understanding known as Insight (Vipassana) and he continues to develop his Insight-meditation, until one day, he gets insight into the true nature of himself and he attains partial experience of Nibbāna by attaining the first stage of realization. He attains the height of Nibbāna. This is the pariyatti’s process in Buddhism. According to Buddhism Nibbāna is considered as the highest goal of ethical life. With a view to enabling man to secure the supreme end of life, Buddhism draws attention to the unsatisfactory nature of mundane existence and exhorts people to seek deliverance from it. It is for the sake of attaining the highest end that ethical codes of conduct and behavior are laid down by the Buddha. Pariyatti and Patipatti is considered as in indispensable means for the consummation of the holy life because truth and value are attributes of reality. Both these elements of truth and value are joined in the concept of Nibbāna, which has been central concept in the Buddhist Pariyatti and Patipatti. Therefore, Buddhist theory of Pariyatti and Patipatti is a way to pave the path for the spiritual development of man. The aim and purpose of Pariyatti and Patipatti according to Buddhist is to bring about a perfect and integrated development of human personality.

The Pariyatti and Patipatti of Thai Sanghas

Buddhism may essentially be regarded as a process of learning and discipline. The teachings of the Vinaya texts are of fundamental importance in understanding Buddhism. As is well known, the Buddha himself is regarded as the Teacher of Gods and men which is one of attributes of the Buddha appearing in the early Buddhist texts. Pariyatti is called in Pali 'sikkha' which is classified into threefold Training

1) Training in higher morality (adhisilasikkha)
2) Training in higher mentality (adhicittasikkha) and
3) Training in higher wisdom (adhipanfiasikkha).

The Pali term ‘bhavana’ used by the Pali texts is in this context, quite appropriate. Bhavana can be used to refer to

1) Kayabhavana - which in the sphere of educational philosophy means physical which refers to the bodily growth through education,
2) Silabhavana which in the educational field refers to the development of the social sense, the sense of discipline which is so important to the development of society,
3) Cittabhavana : cultivation of mind in its emotional aspects in educational field, which includes the cultivation of the following virtues : compassion, tolerance, mindfulness, clear comprehension, concentration, peace and other virtues. Mental equilibrium is essential in order to attain an emotional balance and face crucial issues in life.
4) Pannabhavana: cultivation of wisdom or intellectual development in the sphere of education, here his importance of intellectual training or cultivation of wisdom by which a man can know and understand the realities of the world and of human existence. One can be involved in worldly affairs and yet understand the ultimate significance of the universe and of life. This is the philosophy of human life based on 'simple living and high thinking'. To know what they really are is but the art of living in this world because of suffering which envelopes it and which hinders a true understanding of the problems of life and the world.

As a matter of fact the main purpose of Buddha in proclaiming his teachings was to develop the mind of human beings in the true spirit of learning. Although the Buddha has strong power of speech to convince people to change their way of life, adapt new values and seek for new goals. Yet the Buddha upholds and praises only one type of marvel 'The Miracle of Teaching or Instruction' which can bring about this change. Many rival religious teachers employ tactics of magical and miraculous deeds to convert very well the concept of learning, the method of instruction and the duty of teachers and students. Thus the Buddha in refuting religious superstition was far ahead of his times.

The Buddha, of course, places the standards or criteria which lead human beings who are interested in his teachings to attain the real knowledge and wisdom through critical research and analysis. The teachings of the Buddha, therefore, affirm and support the scientific principles. His approach to the problems of learning are as scientific systematic and secular as the methods of modern educational philosophy and practice. In this regard, the Buddha's approach to learning as a 'come and examine the truth as gold is tried by fire', Paccattam veditabbo vinnuhi -'to be realized by each one independently of the others.' Buddhism based on the scientific principles of learning is called 'Vibhajjhavada, which means 'the doctrine of analysis'. Not only the teachings of the Buddha but the organization of the Sangha itself inculcates this spirit of freedom to learn in a democratic way.

Every newly ordained bhikkhus who is of not more than 5 years standing has to stay with his own spiritual teacher of preceptor called Upajjhaya, or a regular instructor, Acariya in the monastery. All newcomers of the Sangha, of course, are educated in the teachings of the Buddha in general and in the fundamental precepts (adhibrahmacariya sikkha) and in the practice of or training in specialized or minor precepts (abhisamacarasikkha). So also in Buddhism, there are two kinds of the Buddha's disciples namely

1) Sekha, one who has reached one of stage of holiness, except the last and has yet to undergo a higher training, and
2) Asekha, one who does not require any training so as to attain the final goal of Buddhism in each step is the aim of education realized.

The Buddha, therefore, organizes Sangha as an educational institute in which the monastery is the center of education and discipline. Thus the monastery in Buddhism is not merely a residence of bhikkhus (monks), but also plays the significant role as the centre of meditation as well as of culture and education etc. ever since. The Buddha is very far sighted and realizes very much the importance of education, because the role of learning based on the right view (sammaditthi) is the process of cultivation and development of human behaviour. The criterion of the personality of the best man is the achievement of knowledge and good behaviour. Of course, it consists in the ability of learning to perpetuate and help in the spread of the Buddha's teachings throughout the world. Buddhism was once the national religion of India in the time of Asoka, and also spread beyond its birth place in countries like Thailand, Laos and Cambodia etc. because of these noble educational aims and objectives.

The duty of the monks according to Buddhist tradition can be divided into 2 categories

1) Ganthadhura -the burden of studying Scriptures
2) Vipassanathura -the burden of contemplation.

The former was meant for the town-dwelling monks and is independent of the latter for which is meant for the forest dwelling monks. Such a division of spiritual labour made the administration of the Sangha easier. Even in the city, in some big monasteries the building provided for 2 divisions of monks -

1) those studying the Scriptures and
2) those practising meditation at the same time.

It would be right to say that before the onset of modern education, all education was along traditionalist lines and provided only in the monasteries. All those interested in study had to be ordained as monks even if only for a period of a few years. Thus to be ordained is to be educated. This is called 'Buad-rien' (Buad = ordination and rien = education).

The principle of 'Buad-Rein' (ordination cum education) was in fact enunciated during King Boromtrailokanath's reign. The monasteries multiplied many fold and the whole country became educationally and spiritually conscious. Some of these were royal monasteries, some private and some others public. The aim was to worship the Triple Gem of Buddhism -the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha by a keen study of the Tipitakas and its application in the sphere of education among the entire population of the country.

At present, Thai sangha established two kinds of Buddhist educational systems, Dhamma learning and Pāli learning. It is widely acknowledged that Pāli is the form of the earliest Buddhist ‘scriptures’ – retained by Theravāda Buddhists. Buddhism can only be accurately understood if one has the thorough ability to maneuver through the intricate texts. Knowing Pāli is an advantageous educational-key to unlocking important ethical situations demonstrated in the Tipitaka. Pāli protects Theravāda Buddhism from damage to its pristine purity, and is officially recognized as the only language of the Theravāda School by the order of Sangha -throughout its peaceful march of more than 2500 years. Both Pāli and Theravāda Buddhism are inseparably interlinked with each other. It can be said that if today Pāli vanishes from this earth, tomorrow there will be certainly the end of Theravāda Buddhism.

For the promulgation of Buddha’s teaching, the study of Pāli should not be reserved only for Buddhist monks, but it should be also for lay people because their participation in learning Pāli will be one of effective ways of keeping Buddha’s teachings lasting longer. There is no need to say that the purpose of learning Pāli is to fully and exactly understand the genuine words of the Lord Buddha in Five Nikāyas.

Patipatti of Thai Sangha has gradually grown from time to time. There are so many forest monasteries abundant in every parts of Thailand. They are centers of all walks of life to seek a liberation. In the tradition of the Paryatti and Patipatti that flourished in Thailand, these three trainings form the core of a practitioner's discipline. The path proceeds from insight into the view to meditative practice to proper conduct. That is to say: one first trains in conceptual understanding, subsequently deepened through the experience of meditative stability and insight, and then moves into action on a more enlightened, wiser basis.

This formulation of the importance of training in right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right samādhi is in the classic commentarial literature such as Buddhaghosa's Path of Purification often subsumed under the heading of a complete three-fold training (trishiksa) in proper conduct (sīla), meditative engagement (samādhi), and knowledge or wisdom (paññā).

As my own opinion, I myself can say that both Pariyatti and Pattipatti can totally go along together. After achieving the result of practicing, the practitioner will instantly gain the knowledge by their own self. But without the basic of the doctrine, the practitioner will not be able to end up their own practice also.

Conclusion:
In Buddhism holy-life consists of three stages i.e. sīla, samādhi and paññā. Each of them serves as a sufficient condition for the other; sīla is the basic foundation of ethical life and it prepares a congenial atmosphere for samādhi rather it is conducive to samādhi and samādhi forms a background for paññā which means samādhi is conducive to paññā. With the proper fulfillment of these gradual stages, the Buddhist holy-life is complete. However, though all the three stages are complementary to each other yet each of them has its limitation; sīla provides training to the body and speech, samādhi provides mental training and paññā unfolds the nature of reality whereby the nature of the Dhamma, is clearly understood. In this way each stage has a definite function and a definite field of operation, though with congenial inter relation.

According to Buddhism in order to reach final release from suffering the Noble Eightfold Path must be strictly and perseveringly followed. In treading this Noble Path it prescribes the three graduated stages of practice. These three graduated stages must be followed respectively. As Nibbāna can be attained only when all defilements become exhausted, the purpose of following the three graduated stages of practice is but to do away with all such mental impurities. In observing sīla, the coarse type of defilement are said to be eradicated. Paññā performs the functions of uprooting the most subtle type of defilements called anusaya. When these three forces taken together start functioning -all types of defilements are put to an end into a single moment. However, since the three stages of practice are associated with different functions, they should be considered separately.

It should be affirmed again, that pariyatti and patipatti of Thai sangha accompany the way or the path that the Lord Buddha leading. Eventually, both Pariyatti and Patipatti are finally needed each other, as like two of weight holding the balance of the doctrine. And also in the end of result they will realize by themselves like the Dharma quote which says Paccatta veditabbo vinyuhi’ which briefly means that directly experienceable by the wise.

Pariyatti and Patipatti are harmful in separation and beneficial in union.

Pariyatti and Patipatti-Dhamma in Theravada Countries

Biological Background
Thai chiefs and their warrior bands, migrating from southwest China, founded the first Thai capital, Sukhothai, in the thirteenth century. But the land they entered had been the scene of flourishing civilizations many hundreds of years before.

The area that is now Thailand had been part of the Funan Empire, centered on the lower Mekong valley and with a culture derived from India, which flourished from the first to sixth centuries A.D. The Mon people, who were settled in the Chaophaya valley, the heart of present Thailand, Theravada Buddhism, which adheres to the earliest texts, is practiced in Sri Lanka(by Sinhalese), Burma, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia. By the eleventh and twelfth centuries, however, ordinary people in most Burma, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia had become deeply influenced by Theravada Buddhism with its simplicity, equality, and university, and the had previously absorbed the doctrines of karma and rebirth.

These countries absorbed this cultural heritage, creating in turn their own distinctive civilization: a product of Indianized concepts of king and state, Theravada Buddhism, and indigenous beliefs, customs, and social organization. This remarkable synthesis of externally derived and indigenous spiritual, political, and social ideas and activities was characteristic of the Ayuthaya dynasties that followed(mid-fourteenth to mid-eighteenth centuries)-and it still is, with the assimilation of two new elements: the impact of the west and the influx of Chinese.

Pariyatti-dhamma
The tenets of Theravada Buddhism Such are the classical tenets of Theravada Buddhism, the “pure” Buddhism of early texts, whose influence spread from Srilanka and Burma to the kingdom of Sukhothai. Theravada or Pali Buddhism (the language of its scriptures) underlies the great tradition of Buddhist art, literature, dram, and philosophy, It provides ethical standards or concepts which Southeast Asian Buddhists recognize as ideal forms of thought and action, but which are tempered in practiced (as in all religions) by what is attainable. The ideal of total renunciation, leading to Nirvana (extinction), is impossible for ordinary men. Instead, they are given rules of conduct, informed by the ideal, and indeed difficult to live up to, but falling short of the absolute. These, for laymen, are the “five precepts” abstain from taking life of any kind; give freely, but take nothing that is not given; abstain from wrong sensual pleasure; abstain from speaking what is false; and abstain from intoxicating drinks or drugs.

The monkhood as an institution encourages social mobility. It provides an assurance of status (the most revered in all Thai society),a means of education(up to and including university level in Bangkok), and an opportunity to travel to monasteries throughout the country, which are available even for the poor and underprivileged.

Buddhism in Thailand
Buddhism plays a very significant role in the daily life of Thai people. Since about 95 of the people in the kingdom of Thailand are Buddhists, Buddhism inevitably involves almost every occasion such as birthdays, marriages, moving to the house, funerals, opening business offices and buying new vehicles etc.

Buddhism probably reached its height under the reign of King Li Thai of Sukhothai (King Ramkhamhaeng’s grandson) as it was during his reign that the first Buddhist didactic literary work was written and it was known as the “Tribhumikatha”. Through the centuries Buddhism has been the main driving force in Thai cultural development. Thais of all classes subscribed to Buddhist doctrine. Although Buddhism is proclaimed as the state religion, all Thais are endowed with full religious freedom. Though Thai constitutions stipulate that Thai kings must be Buddhists the Kings, however, must be the Upholders of All Religions.

There are about 27,000 Buddhist temples across the century and majority of them are in the countryside. In Thailand Buddhist monks are highly venerated for their chaste life, self-restraint, social benevolence and knowledge of spiritual practice. To allow people to have more time to devote to religious practice, all major Buddhist holy day are declared as national holidays. In addition, it has long been a Thai custom for Buddhist males over twenty years old to be temporarily ordained as Buddhist monks, usually during the annual Rains Retreat. Temporary ordination, ranging from a few days to three months, is opened to everyone, even His Majesty King Bhumibol and Crown Prince Maha Vajiralongkorn have been monks for short periods. Their acts will continue a tradition for the new generations to come.

The Buddhist outlook, for the layman, is in fact reoriented around the twin theme of “making merit” (tham bun) and avoiding sin (bad). It is the overall or karmic balance between merit and demerit which decides the individual’s existence in this and future lives. The aim, therefore, is to behave in a way that ensures a happy state of mind and maybe physical contentment, now or in the near future, and a more fortune rebirth. The best and most natural way to do this is by supporting the monks (by giving food, alms) and by maintaining the monkhood (by giving sons for ordination, repairing monastery buildings, constructing new ones). The monks reciprocate by blessing the hosts and participants at religious ceremonies and on important occasions in the life cycle-birth, marriage, departures, sixtieth anniversary, and death.

The Theravada Buddhism countries
Thailand is situated in the heart of the Southeast Asian mainland and covers an area of 513,115 square kilometers. It is bounded by Burma (the Union of Myanmar) and Laos in the North, Burma in the West and Malaysia in the South and Cambodia lies to the East of the country.

To be frank, our neighbouring countries are very friendly and peace-loving nations as they follow the principles of mutual cooperation and peaceful coexistence. Though we sometimes experience a border conflict, it is peacefully solved through diplomatic channels. Indeed border trade with our neighbours are very active. It is estimated that several hundred millions of baht changes hands annually. We import timber and gemstones from Burma while it in turn imports consumer goods and engine parts from us. Meanwhile, Laos is our close neighbor as we speak a similar language, share the same religious beliefs and have identical culture links. Thus, we consider each other as brothers.

At present, cooperation on various issues is being strengthened between our neighbouring countries, for example, a Golden Quadrangle Project has been established by China, Thailand, Burma and Laos. They aim to cooperate in developing trade, investment and tourism by focusing on telecommunications and transportation.

It is to be remembered that Thailand has played a significant role in bringing about peace to her Cambodian neighbour. At a time of civil war, Thailand provided a temporary shelter to the Cambodian refugees who fled to Thailand for safety. Now peace has been restored, Thailand has not hesitated to provide financial and technical assistances to rebuild the war-torn country. At present, many Thai businessmen have invested in Cambodia. Thailand also imports timber and gemstones from Cambodia which, in turn, imports from Thailand consumer goods, fuel, cement and clothes. Trade between Thailand and Cambodai is increasingly important as Cambodai is now the world’s most important ruby-producing area and Thailand needs to import raw materials from her neighbours since she is one of the world’s leading centres for cutting and trading of gemstones.

In addition, Thailand also enjoys harmonious relations with her southern neighbour, Malaysia. As both are members of ASEAN (The Association of Southeast Asian Nations). Inevitably, they are under the same roof of the organization in which its members are bound to follow the same principles.

Patipatti-dhamma in Theravada
Now, although Theravada Buddhism is strictly concerned with individual salvation(which cannot be achieved either by divine intervention or by the use of ritual), in practice the individual layman acts (making merit, avoiding demerit) in social context, that is, in the help he gives others, in support for the monks, and by participating in ceremonies. Indeed the social organization required for religious activities plays a prominent part in Thai behavior.

Mujjhima Patipada (The Middle Practice)
According to Buddhism, Mujjhima Patipada is the middle path or the moderate practical code of conduct for both lay people and monastic life. Mujjhima Patipada is regarded as the Buddhist ethic, that the Buddha recommends all monks and lay people to abide by. It is the Eightfold Path for the cessation of suffering. This Eightfold Path is consists of 8 Folds (magga) Right View, Right Thought, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness and Right Concentration. These 8 folds are categorized into 3 fundamental mode of training, called Trisikha, particularly for Buddhist monks and lay Buddhist in holy life, namely; Sila Sikha; training in higher morality, Samadhi Sikha; training in higher mentality and Panna Sikha; training in higher wisdom. This threefold training corresponds to the Buddha’s fundamental teaching “Exhortatory Patimokkha”: Not to do any evil (Sila); to cultivate good (Samadhi); and to purify the mind (Panna) which may be abbreviated as “Clean conduct, Calm spirit and Clear vision.”

Sila sikha or training in higher morality is for the development of bodily and verbal actions under Right speech, Right action and Right livelihood. Samadhi Sikha or higher training in mentality under Right Effort, Right mindfulness and Right Concentration. Panna Sikha is the training for higher wisdom under the Right View and Right Thought.

For lay Buddhists, the Buddha recommends to practice the right middle way of life under the bases of Meritorious action; Dana-meritorious action consisting in generosity, Sila- meritorious action in observing the moral precepts and Bhavana- meritorious action in mental development.
 
The right middle way is characterized by the following;
   1. The middle way is the middle practice I which the Buddha recommends his Buddhist assembly to avoid the two extreme ways of life: self mortification and sensual indulgence, which lead to stagnation from the Buddhist goal of mental liberation and realization of truth.
   2. The middle way is the process of cessation of suffering. According to Buddhism, suffering is the human problem. The causes of suffering are the outflow or bias, ignorance and craving for desires. The cessation of suffering is the cessation of kamma. The process of suffering is Dependent Origination or paticcasamuppada. The process of cessation of suffering is the Eightfold path under the middle way or Majjhima patipada.
   3. The middle way is the practical application of Buddhist ethic. It is not the ethic of thought, as clamed by some western theologians, but it is the method of ethical practice for a better way of life, the Buddhist life style which leads to the cessation of suffering at both the individual and social levels.
   4. The middle way is the way of life, not only normal life, but also monastic life. The middle way is more a process than a rigid law or rule. It is meant to help us recognize that we, as human beings, can grow and experience richer, fuller lives, that each of us has an inner true nature that we realize by listening to our intuitive wisdom.
   5. The middle way is the means to achieve the goals-cessation of suffering, realization of the spiritual liberation. The Buddha says:

“Dhamma is like raft, It is used for crossing the river of pain, suffering, and conflicts. Once the crossing has been accomplished, it is not necessary to cling onto the raft or carry it around.”
In order to attain the goal, Right View, Right Effort, and Right Mindfulness play the key role of “Right practice” of the “Middle path” to a journey. Right View is like a compass or a device to determine direction, Right Effort is the driving force while Right Mindfulness is like a driver who steers the vehicle.

Relevance of Abhidhamma Studies In Modern World

Abhidhamma forms the core of the Buddha’s teachings. It prescribes the reals and thereby tries to find out a concrete solution of the basic problem of mankind. In short, it prescribes a psycho-ethical path to take a man from a state of suffering to the state of eternal bliss. Therefore, it is regarded as the excellent and profound teachings of the Buddha. It is a class of literature which deals with the philosophical and theological topics.It has a long history of development. It has seven books. In order to facilitate the study of the Abhidhamma, the scholars in ancient days started to write compendiums, which were classed under a group of manuals entitled in Burmese Letthan or Little Finger Summaries and were nine in number.Most of them are exegetical literaturedealing with psychology and philosophy and composed by Asian scholars. In fact, through many centuries, there has been a living growth of Abhidhamma thoughts, and even in our own days, there are original contributions to it from Mayanmar and Sri Lanka. In Thailand also there are contributions to it. In this paper, there is an humble attempt to discuss the significance of Abhidhamma Studies in the modern world. 
 

Abhidhamma has contributed specially in the field of phenomenology, theory of perception function of the consciousness and course of cognition. Phenomenology deals with the phenomena i.e. with the world of internal and external experience. It is explained in terms of senses that are liable to be perceived. It regards all that is in Universe as the subjective product of the living mind. In Abhidhamma philosophy, the phenomenology is the occurrence of the phenomena, which includes mind and matter (nāmarūpa) i.e. eighty-nine or one hundred and twenty one types of consciousness, fifty two kinds of psychic factors and twenty-eight types of material qualities. The phenomenology in the Abhidhamma tradition can be discussed by two complementary methods namely analysis of the states and investigating the relations (paccaya) of things.

In the Dhammasangani, the first book of the Abhidhamma Pitaka, the analysis of the states has been discussed. 

The text starts with – ‘yasmim samaye kāmāvacaram kusalam cittam uppannam hoti somanassa sahagatam ñānasampayuttam, rūpārammanam saddārammanam gandhārammanam rasārammanam photabbārammanam va dhammārammanam vā yam yam va pana ārabbha, tasmin samaye phasso hoti vedanā hoti ye va pana tasmin samaye aññe pi atthi paticca samuppanne arūpino dhamme, ime dhamma kusalā.’ 

Here it is shown that even in the smallest psychic unit, that is, in a single moment of consciousness, a multiplicity of mental factors is active between which a certain relationship and interdependence must necessarily exist. Ācārya Buddhaghosa has considered the samaya in five ways namely samavāya, khana, kāla, samūha and hetu in Atthasālini. If samaya is rendered in the sense of samūha, the respective sentence would be in the sense of aggregation of things, since samūha points out to the totality of the dhammas such as contact (phassa) and feeling (vedanā), which are considered as conditions in producing a common result-

‘yo panesa phassavedanādinam dhammānam puñjo so idha samūha ti vibhāvato. 

It should be noted, however, that the Patthāna-pakarana, the last and the seventh book of Abhidhamma Pitaka, is not so much concerned with the relations within a single psychic unit (citta-khana) but deals with the ‘external relations’, that is, with connections between several of such units. But these “external relations” are to a great extent dependent on the ‘internal relations’ of the given single unit or of previous ones, that is, on the modes of combination and the relative strength of the different psychic factors within a single moment of consciousness. TheVibhanga-pakarana discusses the dependent origination within a single moment of consciousness (ekacittakkhanika paticcasamuppāda), which indicates which of the twenty-four types of relations (paccayas) are applicable to which links of that momentary paticcasamuppāda. All phenomena are called sapaccayā (related to causes), sankhata (conditioned by causes) and paticcasamuppanna (arising from a conjecture of circumstances, because in arising and in standing they are conditioned by these twenty four causal relations. Of the twenty-four types of relations, fifteen relations are common to all the mental states.

 

The relationship between consciousness (citta) and psychic factors (cetasika) has been elaborated in the Abhidhamma Philosophy. Whenever a type of consciousness arises, it arises with a number of psychic factors. One cannot have even the conception of consciousness without them. But at the same time, all the fifty-two psychic factors are not available with all the eighty-nine or one hundred twenty one types of consciousness. Further it is said that psychic factors assume on essentially different form for us as soon as we decide to verbalize the inseparability between psychic factors and consciousness. Not only psychic factors perpetually take form at the same moment of its existence but also they contain and combine with consciousness in any moment. In reality, there is a perfect combination between the mental factors and consciousness; both grow together and fuse into a thoroughly concrete unity. This is peculiar principle to regard the inseparability in the mental phenomena from the Abhidhammic Buddhism.

Consciousness and its psychic factors are closely linked together and necessarily interdependent several empirical-theoretical senses. According to Ācārya Aniruddha “those inseparable mental states formed with consciousness are called as a combination where the arising of the consciousness is separate in the bondage to the other”-tesam cittaviyuttānam yathayogamito param, cittuppādesu paccekam sampayogo pavuccati.⁴ Here, the word cittāyutta signifies in the sense of ‘inseparable from consciousness’, i.e. mental states. Aniruddha explains the fifty-two types of psychic factors in the Abhidhammatthasangaho and says that these psychic factors are not conditioned through physical nature and are not depending upon it. However, all psychic factors are corresponding to consciousness in terms of the subsequent dominance, so they are related to real conditions that lie within nature itself. The relationship between psychic factors and consciousness is also a cooperative relationship of being conditioned between two kinds of realities, as psychic factors and consciousness both are not causal agents in a genuine sense. They are the indeterminate pictures of a common implication, from which continuous phenomena is to be constituted.

To explain psychic factors, it is said that sabbacittasādhārana, which are seven in number, namely phasso, vedanā, saññā, cetanā, ekaggatā, jīvitindriya, manasikara, are the ultimate bases of data of knowledge in the sense that they have not yet been determined within any conceptual system. They are associated with all the eighty-nine or one hundred twenty-one types of consciousness. The Pakinnaka cetasikas are associated with the consciousness of all the spheres but not with all types of consciousness. They are associated with some and not associated with other. They are six in number namely, Vitakka, Vicāra, Adhimokkha, Viriya, Pīti and Chanda. The fourteen Akusala-psychic factors are associated only with the twelve types of immoral consciousness. They twenty-five sobhana-psychic factors find their association with the fifty-nine or ninety one types of sobhanacittas available in four spheres of consciousness.

There are altogether fourteen types of functions, which are being performed by the consciousness or mind throughout the human life i.e. from entering into the womb of the mother (patisandhi) upto disconnection of the life process (cuti). Since these fourteen acts are being performed by our consciouseness, these are called citta-kiccāni. The fourteen types of functions are namely-

(i) Patisandhi, 

(ii) Bhavanga, 

(iii) Āvajjana, 

(iv) Dassana, 

(v) Savana, 

(vi) Ghayāna, 

(vii) Sāyana, 

(viii) Phusana, 

(ix) Sampaticchana, 

(x) Santīrana, 

(xi) Votthapana, 

(xii) Javana, 

(xiii) Tadālambana, and 

(xiv) Cuti. 

Patisandhi, Bhavanga and Cuti are allied functions, performed at different moments of time. Rebirth and death are performed once each in one’s lifetime. The function of patisandhi is performed at the time of conception, and the same consciousness has been taken over as bhavangacitta, which will continue for the rest of our lives until cuticitta replace it at death. Between rebirth and death in this existence there continues during all hours of deep sleep an unbroken stream of bhavanga-citta. During the rest of the time, every moment an activity is performed either by thought, word or deed, it is the citta vīthi (course of cognition) that functions. Each thought process is made up of seventeen thought moments (citta-khana), which perform varying functions. Each thought moment has three successive states like arising (uppāda), staying (thiti) and cessation (bhanga). The rapidity of the succession of such thought moments is so minute that it is hardly conceivable by the Ken of human understanding.

Phenomenology becomes a way of showing the essential involvement of human existence in the world starting with everyday perception. Its primary objective has been to take a fresh approach to a concretely experienced phenomenon through the direct investigation of the data of consciousness. Here, ‘phenomenon’ may be interpreted as ‘an object’. The term ‘object’ (ālambana) is defined as that where the states of consciousness and its constituents depend on. Further in the sense of ramana, it refers to that which is entertained by those mental states. The Buddhist theory of cognition has discussed the process of knowing the objects or phenomenon. It can be seen that full course of cognition (cittavīthi) at five door of senses has ten stages, beginning from Bhavanga to Tadālambana. The first three stages, namely Bhavanga, Bhavanga-calana, Bhavanga-viccheda are the preliminaries. Further there are seven types of consciousness, which happen to be in this process. Since, Javana is repeated for seven times and the Tadālambana twice, there is the arising of consciousness (cittuppāda) for fourteen times. The three preliminaries involve three thought moments and the fourteen times arising of consciousness (cittuppāda) contain fourteen thought-moments, making altogether seventeen thought moments to complete the full course of cognitions at five door of senses.⁵ In detail, there is the possibility of arising of fifty-four types of kamavacara-consciousness with above vīthis. It is said-

“vīthi cittāni satteva cittuppāda catuddasa catupaññāsa vitthārā pañcadvāre yathāraham.”⁶

It is to be noted that the speed of the matter is seventeen times less than that of the mind. The duration of life of a unit of matter are seventeen thought moments. A unit of matter appears as an object in the range of a sense organ and the course of cognition starts. By the time, the mind undergoes changes for seventeen times through different stages, the object remains in the same stage. At the end of seventeen thought moments, the full course of cognition is complete and the duration of the life of the matter also expires. Because, such difference in the speed of the two, there is the possibility of taking place of a course of cognition and thereby understanding of an object. Each small unit of time is called one thought moment (citta-khana) having three successive states like arising (uppāda), staying (thiti), and cessation (bhanga).⁷ When an object enters in the range of sense organ only one thought moment after its rise, there starts a course of cognition on it. It survives up to the Tadālambana stage and completes itself in further sixteen thought moments making seventeen in all. The life-moment of the object also expires at this stage. It is a full course of cognition technically known as Tadālambana-vāra. The object is fully cognized. It is called as ‘very distinct object’ or ‘ati mahanta-ālambana’⁸ Sometimes, the object appears in the range of a sense organ a bit late after it has taken its existence. It happens so because the impression of the object is not very clear. As such it does not survive up to the Tadālambana stage. It dies out in the middle of the course of cognition immediately after the end of Javana-consciousness. The course of cognition is named as Javana-vāra.⁹ Sometimes, the nature of the object is no doubt determined but neither it is utilized nor the experiences are recorded. In this circumstance, the cognition of the object is feeble. Such an object is called ‘Parittālambana’ or slight object. The course of cognition is called votthapana-vāra.¹⁰ In this way, the cognition of the object as very distinct, distinct, slight and very slight depends on the variation in survival of the course of cognition. 

 In Sarvastivada Abhidharma tradition, the phenomenology is the duality by a unique doctrine of two types of reality i.e. phenomenally real (samvrtisat) and substantially real (dravya-sat). Awareness of the former lumps together the ultimately discreet, atomic elements, concealing their real nature and revealing them as one unity. The latter are revealed only in our analytic awareness (prajñā), while they are also causally responsible for the perceptual awareness to arise.¹¹ The Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma also contributed to a theory of direct perception by accepting the conception of a static moment. According to the Abhidharmadīpa-‘The substance called eye is of the nature of that which sees [a ‘seer’]. In it is produced an action of seeing when its power is awakened on account of the emergence of the totality of its causes and conditions. The eye does not apprehend independently of consciousness (vijñāna), nor does the eye-consciousness know the object unsupported by the active eye. The eye as well as eye-consciousness, with the help of such accessories as light, cooperates simultaneously toward beginning the perception of a given object. The object, eye, the eye-consciousness, and the light, all manifest their power i.e. become active and flash forth simultaneously. The object appears, the eye sees, and the eye –consciousness knows it. This is called the direct knowledge of an object.

Thus, the Sarvastivadins as well as the later Theravādins have attempted to justify direct perception as well as the real existence of the object. For this reason, they may be designated realists. Vaibhāsika points out that there is no real difference between ‘seeing’ and ‘knowing’, although we have such usages as the eye ‘sees’ or the mind ‘knows’. The Vaibhāsika seeks to support its point by referring to a sūtra:’cakshusa rupāni drstvā’. The Theravadin’s interpretation is identical with that of Kos’akāra. Ācārya Buddhaghosa in his magnum opus work clearly states that is the cakkhuviññāna which sees the rūpa and not the,

cakkhu-‘cakkhu rūpam na passati-acittakattā cittam na passati acakkhukattā, dvārārammanasanghatte pana cakkhuppasādavatthukena cittena passati.’

But, even the expression ‘consciousness knows’ is not to be taken literally, since there is no consciousness apart from knowing. The knowledge does not grasp, the eye does not see, the object does not offer itself to both. All dharmas being momentary are incapable of any activity; what we call action is nothing more than their coming into existence in a sequence determined by the law of pratītya-samutpāda. There is neither an actor, nor an action apart from the mere flash of dharmas.

The causal relation between the object and the consciousness forms one of the most intricate problems that confront the Buddhist theory of perception. The Buddhist is committed to a doctrine of radical momentariness of all things, both mind and matter. The Sautrantikas, who denied the conception of a static moment (sthitiksana) were, on the other hand, compelled to accept a theory of indirect perception. Going on the premise that an object must endure if it is to be available for cognition, the Sautrantikas maintained that, since both the object and conscousness are without duration, there cannot be direct perception of the external object. The commentary of the Abhidharmadīpa, refers to argument put forward by the Sautrantikas (Darstantikas) as follows-

“The organs and the objects of the five sense-consciousness, being causes of the latter, belong to a past moment. When the object (rūpa) and the eye exist, the visual consciousness is nonexistent. When visual consciousness exists, the eye and the object is non existing. In the absence of their duration (sthiti) there is no possibility of the cognition of the object.”

This led them to conclude that all (sense) perceptions are indirect (apratyaksa).¹⁶ The Sautrantikas held that the subject is capable of receiving an impression of the likeness of the object. What is directly cognized in this impression or representation of the object and not the object itself, which, by the time of cognition, is a thing of the past. The object is merely inferred on the basis of the sense impression. This is the representative theory of perception, or the theory of the inferability of the external object (bāhyārthanumeyavāda).

The Sautrantika by his theory of sākāra-jñānavāda (representative perception) paved the way for the emergence of the idealist Vijñānavāda. The external object was pushed into the background by maintaining that what was directly perceived was the content of the knowledge and not the object. “The object being always inferred, the content alone became real to the knowledge.”¹⁷ The Vijñānavādins goes a step further and maintains that the objects are mere ideal projections ideas alone are real.

Thus, it can be presumed in the light of the phenomenology in the Abhidhammic analysis that Theravada is right in insisting that every such choice of psychic factors involve a principle of psychological investigation and the Sarvāstivāda is right in insisting on the primacy of the epistemology or perception of the psychic factors are in the actual case before us. The phenomena are psychological primary sources of natural truth and give us abstract characteristics of our actual judgments in moral affairs. They enable us to correct the mental characters precisely because the recognition of what is essential in many cases helps us to distinguish the immoral and moral things in any phenomenon.